Barriers to school attendance

Irregular attendance can lead to higher repetition and dropout rates, as well as low levels of learning. A variety of factors cause irregular attendance and difficulty in attending primary school, such as:

• Many children participate in labour activities, such as working on their family’s land, which their family may depend on for survival. Even if this labour does not prohibit them from attending school all together, combining work and school has been shown to increase absences and hurt educational performance, often leading to school dropouts (UNESCO, 2015).
• The distance to school is another major factor impeding children’s attendance, as not all households can afford transport, or transport may not be available. Schools may be too far for some children to travel safely. Inaccessible and inappropriate infrastructure affect children’s attendance to school and educational outcomes. Moreover, attitudinal barriers and school’s climate pose serious constraints to children’s attendance, participation and learning in schools.

Considering the diverse range of causes for irregular attendance and low levels of learning, strategies to address these issues will be equally diverse, including decreasing distances to school; measures to increase school’s awareness of children’s home circumstances; legal reform and community advocacy campaigns against child labour and early marriage/pregnancies and promoting the value of education for all; providing early childhood education; accessible and inclusive school environments; school feeding programmes; conditional and unconditional cash transfers; flexible delivery modes; flexible learning strategies; mobile schools; and multi-shift schooling.

* Note that for economic constraints related to direct costs such as school fees and school supplies see Policy page Direct cost of schooling.

Promising policy options

Decreasing distance to school

School distance is a significant factor in school attendance and drop-out rates. Long distances increase the opportunity costs of children attending school, can tire out children making it more difficult for them to learn, and can also potentially place them in vulnerable situations (Theunyck, 2002). If children are required to take transportation to school, these costs can exclude poorer households. School distance is a particular barrier for girls’ school attendance, as safety factors may pose too large risks. Some strategies to reduce school distance include:

• Construct new schools: placing schools near students dramatically increases attendance rates and learning outcomes for all children.
• Implement small school model with multi-grade classrooms: implemented mostly in rural areas, this can help tackle constraints to attendance and increase enrollment rates. For example, Colombia’s multi-grade community schools programme known as Escuela Nueva or ‘New School’ ‘contributed to a 30 percent increase in rural enrolment’ (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016: 143).
• Provide transport: to increase school attendance, education authorities should provide free or subsidized transportation for children who are forced to travel long distances and/or through difficult environments to attend school (for more information about providing transport consult Policy page School location).
• Develop satellite schools which offer the first few grades (after which children will be able to travel further). For example, BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Action Committee) “satellite” schools helped raise primary enrolment rates (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016).
• Build community schools: research has found that community schools can increase enrolment and completion rates (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016). For example, the BRAC schools mentioned above are community schools as well, their completion rate is 94 percent compared to 67 percent in public schools (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016). Yet, all educational planners and relevant stakeholders must put in place adequate regulation systems for those entities, not only to ensure their quality but also to ensure the right to education (Abidjan Principles, 2019). They should also ensure a transition of pupils into public schools. For example, BRAC schools facilitate the transition towards the formal public system (DeStefano et al., 2007 cited by Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016).
• Mobile schools (described under “Other policy options” below).
• Open and distance learning (described under “Other policy options” below).

* For more on this subject, consult Policy page School location.

Measures to increase teacher’s awareness of children’s particular home circumstances that may be negatively affecting their school performance and attendance (such as children caring for sick family members, children neglected or facing violence at home, lacking basic needs, or burdened by labour, whether domestic or productive) can facilitate flexibility and specific interventions to address the issues before the child is forced to drop out of school.

Measures to facilitate the school’s awareness of the child’s circumstances include:

• friendly, caring attitude of teachers, promoting trust between teachers and pupils;
• one-on-one dialogues/meetings between teachers and students;
• specific teachers designated as counsellors for one-on-one counselling sessions;
• home visits;
• social records;
• regular meetings between teachers and guardians/caregivers;
• teachers trained on specific health/social issues; and
• collaboration between teachers and local health workers.

Responses to support children in difficult circumstances include:

• catch up sessions before school, after school, or during breaks for children missing school due to their engagement in domestics/productive activities;
• special assignments to make up for missed in-class work, so children do not fall behind when they are forced to miss school;
• flexibility in payment of fees such as offering guardians work in the school in exchange for fee payment to support families with financial constraints; and
• referrals to external support, such as NGOs, community-based organizations, clinics, community groups to support children experiencing violence, neglect, health issues, lacking basic needs, or any other social issues requiring extra support.

School feeding programmes

School feeding programmes can off-set the opportunity costs of families, and are particularly effective for increasing the school attendance and participation of vulnerable populations, including nomadic communities (Kinyanjui, 2022). These need to have certain conditions (Drake and Curtis, 2016; WFP, 2009):

• choose appropriate modality for context: on-site meals, snacks, take-home rations, or a combination;
• appropriate targeting of recipients;
• measures to ensure reasonable cost and sustainability of the programmes;
• food should meet the nutritional and cultural needs of the children;
• measures to avoid stigmatization and singling out of recipients;
• food sourced locally.

For example, Kenya has implemented this type of strategy since 2009 through the school meals programme. The programme aims to promote enrolment, attendance, and achievement by providing meals to students from vulnerable localities (Ruto, Gachoya and Ngindiru, 2022). It also stimulates local agricultural production as the food comes from local and small farmers and suppliers (Ruto, Gachoya and Ngindiru, 2022).

Early childhood education

The provision of early childhood education and services can prevent the need for older children to stay home to take care of younger siblings and family members. Additionally, children that attend pre-primary programmes are more likely to enrol in primary school at the appropriate age and have the required skills to effectively learn, which also reduces the likelihood of them repeating and dropping out early.

* For more on this subject, consult Policy page School readiness.

Aligning the minimum work age with the end of compulsory schooling and abolishing exploitative child labour practices

If the legal minimum labour age is lower than the age that children leave school, there may be an encouragement for children to drop out of school to work. It is therefore important for these ages to be aligned, and for there to be coherence between child labour policies and education policies. To facilitate this, there should be strengthened coordination between the Ministries of Education and Ministries of Labour. Beyond just the existence of this legal framework, enforced implementation of the laws will also be crucial.

Governments should also fight to eliminate harmful and exploitative child labour practices. Challenges in abolishing child labour will involve preventing resulting economic hardships on families, and preventing more underground, unsafe child labour practices from proliferating. Governmental funding solutions to eliminate child labour may take the form of budget transfers from other sectors to social expenditures, relieving debts to increase domestic spending on the provision of basic needs to the poorest households, and development assistance from richer countries.

Community mobilization/advocacy campaigns and legal reform

Community mobilization and public advocacy campaigns can cultivate positive attitudes about the importance of education and address socio-cultural barriers and issues, such as child labour, early marriage and pregnancies, and attitudes towards children’s education and their roles in society. This will also include advocating for legal reform when an adequate legal environment does not exist.

Governments should also promote positive attitudes about children’s education and their roles in society. They should address negative cultural attitudes and practices such as child labour, child marriage, early pregnancy, and female genital mutilation (FGM), among others. For example, the government of Kenya launched in 2020 a national awareness and advocacy campaign against early pregnancies (Kinyanjui, 2022). It also enacted the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act in 2011 and created the Anti-Female-Genital-Mutilation Board in 2013 (Kinyanjui, 2022).

It is key to reform national laws and policies on the legal age of child labour and legal age of marriage (for both girls and boys), to address negative cultural attitudes as FGM, as well as promoting national policies and legislation ensuring girls’ maintain the right to schooling during and after pregnancy.

* For more on this subject, consult Policy page Socio-cultural barriers to schooling.

Provide adequate facilities and a safe and welcoming school environment

If children find their school environments to be unsafe and/or unwelcoming, either for health risks due to inadequate infrastructure and safety practices, or due to issues such as violence and bullying, they will be deterred from regularly attending school. School climates should be safe, welcoming and supportive, providing a nurturing learning environment that encourages children to regularly attend. A number of measures need to be set in place for this to happen:

• Ensure adequate water access and sanitation facilities on school premises.
• Put in place health measures such as promoting Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) practices, including regular hand washing; establish food safety rules in the handling and preparation of food; and control environmental risks and vector-borne diseases.
• Ensure a warm and friendly learning environment. Emphasis on greetings, encouragement, smiles; promoting an understanding and tolerance towards the diverse backgrounds of students; and fostering collaboration between students, teachers, and school staff.
• Guarantee a comfortable and accessible, design of school and classrooms, adapted to local culture and needs.
• Practice positive discipline.
• Prohibit bullying and violence, put in place discipline measures.

*For more on this subject, consult Policy pages School climate and School infrastructure.

Other policy options

Conditional cash transfers

Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) are targeted cash grants provided to the poorest households, conditional upon the school attendance of primary-aged children. This can help alleviate resource constraints that prevent children from attending school. CCTs can also be used to specifically target girls and children with disabilities, in order to address the barriers that devalue and/or impede their education. Careful consideration needs to be given to the targeting method, conditions, size of transfer, and entry and exit rules.

While generally proven effective for increasing primary attendance, an argument against CCTs is that they can require a significant amount of discretionary education spending that could be used for other programmes devoted to educational quality. Their long-term use should, therefore, be weighed against more lasting educational reforms. Additionally, CCTs can be costly to monitor, and can still exclude populations who are most in need of transfers.

It is important then to carefully select the targeting method. Target all poor households with primary-aged children or specifically those that are not sending their children to school, through means testing, geographical location, community leader assessments, or self-selection. Select appropriate conditions (rate of attendance) and size of transfer, and consider entry and exit rules.

Unconditional cash transfers

Cash transfers and grants can be provided to impoverished families without any required conditions, to reduce the need for child labour, and offset other financial related barriers hindering school attendance. Unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) are less costly to implement, and it is argued that if poverty is the main educational constraint, families will use additional funds towards education, even in the absence of set requirements (UNESCO, 2015). UCTs can also empower households, especially women (as often they will be the ones managing the money) to make their own decisions for their children. However, evidence suggests that when CCTs are based on attendance, CCTs have a greater impact on education than UCTs. Like conditional cash transfers, unconditional transfers should carefully consider targeting methods, and entry and exit rules.

Flexible delivery modes

Flexible school delivery modes allow schools to be more accommodating to children’s work schedules—yearly school calendars and daily school schedules can be adjusted to fit with local needs. There should be an adequate balance between work and school, to prevent children’s work from interfering with learning needs. It often calls for strong community participation and may require extra resources for added shifts.

Set a yearly school calendar to reflect local agricultural and livestock seasons, with school vacations during harvest times, or other heavy work periods. Adjust daily school hours to better-fit work schedules—can be set by local parents, and add additional school shifts during off-work hours (on weekends for instance), and study independent models outside of school (extra assignments/projects provided by teachers), to make up loss in-class work.

Flexible learning strategies/alternative learning programmes

Flexible learning strategies (FLS) occur outside of the context of traditional schooling, focusing on the needs of children excluded from the formal education system. There is no one globally accepted term to refer to these programmes that meet learning needs outside of the formal system, so the term “flexible learning strategies” encompasses a variety of programmes such as alternative learning programmes, equivalency programmes, accelerated learning programmes, certified non-formal education programmes, etc. FLS are often targeted for children who either have never enrolled or have dropped out of school and may need to catch-up to age-appropriate education, learning basic literacy numeracy skills and life skills. This can include specific marginalized groups such as refugees, minorities, girls, migrants, and children living in extreme poverty. FLS can be flexible in regards to hours of teaching, setting, curriculum, and teaching strategy, responding to the specific needs and characteristics of excluded children and ‘bringing the schooling to the students rather than getting students to the school’ (UNESCO Bangkok, n.d.).

Issues with FLS approaches include poorly qualified teachers, lack of resources, poor quality of programmes, and the risk of developing a parallel inferior education system for marginalized and disadvantaged children.

Approaches for successful Flexible Learning Strategies include:

• national/ regional guidelines and standards for FLS;
• a national system of accreditation for FLS, and credit transfers;
• institutional connections and coordinating mechanisms between formal schooling and FLS;
• monitoring and evaluation of FLS programmes (student enrolment, achievement, completion, transition);
• programmes adapted to the needs and circumstances of the populations they are serving, with flexible delivery modes;
• partnerships between government, NGOs and communities;
• emphasis on quality;
• increased political commitment, and government resource allocation; and
• approached as a transitionary step to formal schooling.

Open and Distance Learning

Distance education or open and distance learning, refers to education where the constraints of time and space are removed, and students can learn remotely using various information and communication technologies, rather than attending a school campus. Mobile electronic devices such as phones, media players, and tablet computers are becoming increasingly affordable and common throughout the world, and offer new possibilities in reaching populations that are unable to attend physical school campuses. While open and distance learning is primarily used for tertiary education, teacher training, and other programmes targeting adults, there are also opportunities for it to be applied to primary levels. Kenya recently launched a distance learning program using radio broadcasts, to reach nomadic populations. However, programmes may not be sufficiently developed yet to adequately replace in-person primary education models. Other challenges include safety and privacy issues, and education quality.

When developing open and distance learning programmes, various aspects must be kept in mind. As explained by Castillo, Adam and Haßler (2022), EdTech must be based on students’ needs, digital competencies, and learning motivation. It is also key to understand the physical and digital infrastructure available, which can be done by creating an initial needs assessment and community mapping exercise (Castillo, Adam and Haßler, 2022). Moreover, equity, inclusion, sociocultural factors, and ethical considerations must be taken into account to ensure that EdTech solutions do not reproduce inequalities. Particularly, those considerations do not only concern aspects related to access, but also the ‘inequality in authorship, narratives, contributions, and epistemic diversity’ within the design process of EdTech initiatives (Graham et al., 2015; Adam, 2020b as cited in Castillo, Adam and Haßler, 2022: 119).

In 2015 an international group of stakeholders developed the Principles for Digital Development, which should also be acknowledged when planning, designing, implementing, and monitoring distance education programmes (Castillo, Adam and Haßler, 2022). The principles include: ‘design with the user, understand the existing ecosystem, design for scale, build for sustainability, be data-driven, use open standards, reuse and improve existing research, address privacy and security, and be collaborative.’ (Castillo, Adam and Haßler, 2022: 123).

Mobile schools

Mobile schools can adapt to nomadic and pastoralist communities’ work and migratory schedules and may consist of structures that can be dismantled, such as tents. These schools can reach populations who otherwise would be unable to regularly attend formal schooling. In Kenya, around 90 mobile schools exist, which assign teachers to a certain family or groups of families, and allow younger children to attend school during the day and older children at night. While this system allows children to learn from home without interfering in their daily work, the school costs per student are high, teachers are often unqualified and have little support and resources, and the inconsistency of children moving in and out of the system can have negative learning consequences. In Mongolia, ger kindergartens, consisting of traditional wooden and felt ger dwellings, operate during summer months in remote areas. Their costs, such as teacher salaries, are covered by the normal kindergartens that they are attached to. In this case, the ger model of mobile schooling has been successful in providing early childhood education to remote rural communities.

Double-shift schooling

Double-shift or multiple-shift schooling allows schools to hold multiple sessions during the day for different sets of students. This policy is usually implemented in order to allow schools to save on costs and resources and reduce class sizes, but another advantage is that it frees students part of the day to support themselves and their families, which can be advantageous for students facing particular constraints. However, this shortened school day often means an overall lower quality of education as globally the child will receive less instructional time.

*For more on this subject, consult Policy page Double-shift schooling.

Policy options for improving Equity and Inclusion

Gender-responsive policies

Promising policy options

Promoting girls’ education and gender equality

To tackle down constraints to attendance, it is essential to promote gender equality in education through governmental policies. Ensuring a gender-responsive curriculum and textbooks is of key importance, as well as providing skilled staff and more female teachers so that girls can feel more supported and encouraged to learn.

Another strategy to promote girls’ education and gender equality is to reduce the cost of school, addressing tuition fees and financial barriers. Creating sensitizing campaigns to tackle violence, abuse, and HIV issues is also important. Cross-sectorial interventions related to health and HIV/AIDS should also be planned.

It is also important to develop, implement, and monitor policies and legislation ensuring that girls can continue schooling during/following pregnancy. School-based health services including sexual reproductive health and support for pregnant girls and young mothers should be provided.

* For more on gender-sensitive infrastructure, consult Policy page School infrastructure and School buildings are not ready.

* For more information on gender-based violence, consult Gender section (school-related gender-based violence) in Policy page School violence.

Decreasing the distance to school

As expressed through the general section of the present Policy page, distance to school is a significant barrier to children’s attendance and learning in schools (GPE and UNGEI, 2017; Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016; The World Bank, 2012). A study in South Sudan illustrated that distance was one of the most important reasons explaining nonattendance to school by children –particularly girls– living in rural areas (see Annex 1) (The World Bank, 2012). Additionally, a research conducted by Burde and Linen (2012) in rural north-western Afghanistan revealed that reducing the distance to school increased enrolment rates by 42 percent as well as girls’ test scores (Burde and Linden, 2012, cited by GPE and UNGEI, 2017). This research also showed that ‘the enrolment rate for girls falls 19 percent per mile, as compared to 13 percent for boys’ (Burde and Linden, 2012, cited by GPE and UNGEI, 2017: 48).

Although all of the different strategies recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply for this category, certain among them will be referenced once again to illustrate particular successful examples.

• Although placing schools near students dramatically increase attendance rates and learning outcomes for all children, this policy has a particular effect on girls. For instance, an analysis of 31 villages in north-western Afghanistan, where local schools were constructed, showed a significant improvement in girls’ enrolment rates and average test scores (Burde and Linden, 2013).  
• Satellite schools have also contributed to girls’ education. For example, BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Action Committee) “satellite” schools, which offer the first three years of primary education helped raise girls’ primary enrolment rates (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016).
• Community schools have been proven to increase enrolment and completion rates, particularly of girls. For example, in Mali, community schools raised girls’ enrolment by 67 percent. They have also been successful in improving girls’ learning progress. For instance, in Upper Egypt 97 percent of girls attending a community school passed national examinations compared to 73 percent of girls in public schools (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016).

Annex 1

Reasons for Not Attending School, Boys and Girls, Urban and Rural, 2009

Source: The World Bank. 2012. Education in the Republic of South Sudan: status and challenges for a new system. p. 53. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/787661468302991853/Education-in-the-Republic-of-South-Sudan-status-and-challenges-for-a-new-system

Aligning the minimum work age with the end of compulsory schooling and abolishing exploitative child labour practices

Research has shown that one of the main factors causing boys to fall behind girls in participation, progression and learning rates, is due to the desire and/or need to work (UNESCO-GEM Report, 2018). This issue is exacerbated in countries were entering the labour market is relatively easy, which is why it is of utmost importance to implement the policy recommendations mentioned in the general section of the present Policy page. Additionally, intensive household chores and the obligation of caring for younger siblings can also negatively influence children’s attendance and school performance, especially for girls. In such a context, allowing the possibility for flexible school schedules should be considered (see the section below).

Community mobilization/advocacy campaigns and legal reform

As expressed before, community mobilization, engagement, and public advocacy campaigns are recommended to enhance positive attitudes on the importance of children’s education and address socio-cultural barriers impeding it.

* For specific recommendations consult the general section of the present Policy page as well as the Policy page Socio-cultural barriers to schooling.

Provide adequate facilities and a safe and welcoming school environment

All of the policies and strategies recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply. Yet, it is important to re-state the following recommendations through gender lens:

• Sanitation and hygiene facilities should be gender-responsive. Separate, private toilets or latrines for girls and boys should be provided, as well as sufficient washing facilities that allow girls to safely and privately wash out and change their sanitary rags/pads. Schools should also consider supplying sanitary materials for girls’ menstruation. For instance, in 2011 the Ministry of Education in Kenya launched the sanitary menstrual pads  programme for schools, and since 2018 this programme provides free sanitary pads to girls from disadvantaged communities (Ruto, Gachoya and Ngindiru, 2022).

• School climate must be gender-responsive, inclusive, welcoming, supportive and provide a nurturing learning context (for specific recommendations consult the Policy page School climate). Moreover, special attention and strategies must be implemented to tackle down school-related gender-based violence. SRGBV ‘is a major reason for children dropping out of school, with girls experiencing predominantly sexual violence, and boys more often physical violence from teachers, staff and peers’ (for recommendations consult Gender section in Policy page School violence) (Leonard Cheshire Disability and UNGEI, 2017: 12).

Other policy options

Conditional cash transfers

As expressed throughout the general section of the present Policy page, conditional cash transfers can specifically target girls and address risks of child marriage or cultural barriers that devalue girls’ education. This policy recommendation could also be implemented in countries where boys are particularly affected due to the need to work (UNESCO-GEM Report, 2018).

* For precise information on this strategy consult the general section of the present Policy page.

Flexible delivery modes

Implementing flexible delivery modes are recommended in regular and community-schools as they help ‘boost enrolment by accommodating children’s work, making it easier for children to care for younger siblings, do chores, or even work for wages while enrolled in school’ (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016: 146). Although this policy option does raise up many issues, such as allowing children to attend school part-time, in many cases and for many children, this might be the most realistic option to enjoy an educational opportunity. For example, Bangladesh’s BRAC schools, which operate only 2.5 hours daily, have allowed drop-out figures to stay below 1 percent of enrolled students (Sperling, Winthrop and Kwauk, 2016).).

* For precise information on this strategy consult the general section of the present Policy page.

Policies for children with disabilities

Promising policy options

Implementing an adequate legal and policy framework (Inclusive Education)

Concerning the legal framework, there are numerous conventions, declarations, and frameworks exist at the international level outlining the right to education for children with disabilities. For instance, the Salamanca Statement recognizes the necessity of the regular education system to provide education for children with disabilities (UNESCO, 1994). Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) recognizes the right to education of persons with disabilities and calls all States Parties to ensure an inclusive education system at all levels (UN General Assembly, 2007). It is recommended for every country to ratify and implement such conventions to ensure that their education laws are in congruence with them (UNICEF, 2014a). For example, Viet Nam, with the support of UNICEF, strengthened its legal framework to promote the rights of children with disabilities, and, in particular, two government circulars were issued concerning their education (UNICEF, 2014a).

Concerning the policy framework, it is recommended that governments address the question of the education of children with disabilities through the Education Sector Plans (ESP) and policies. Through ESPs, governments can ensure that sufficient capacity, leadership, and resources are allocated to the establishment of inclusive education systems. This could ensure that the curricula, learning materials, learning processes, and assessments, among many other aspects, are accessible to all children, including children with disabilities (UNICEF, 2014a). For example, Tanzania’s Education Sector Development Plan (2008-2017) stated: ‘wherever possible, all children with special educational needs should be educated in “normal” classes in “normal” schools. This inclusive approach necessitates teachers being appropriately trained together with “disability-friendly” school buildings and community awareness-raising as necessary’ (Tanzania, 2008: 20). In Europe, countries such as Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta, Norway, and Portugal encourage inclusive education (UNESCO, 2015a). It is important to know that although having an inclusive education system is the recommended goal, it is also a process. Thus, in reality, many countries in that process may have hybrid policies in place –which may include special and integration strategies. As long as the general movement leads towards more inclusionary practices and is geared towards meeting all children’s needs, hybrid policies can be taken advantage of (UNESCO, 2015a).  

In general, to reduce the vulnerability of children –peoples– with disabilities, States should provide clear legal and policy frameworks to tackle down discrimination against them and entitle them to protection (UNICEF, 2013).

Importance of data and monitoring systems to identify the constraints to attendance and provide data-based policy measures

Reliable and objective data allows governments to recognize the constraints impeding children with disabilities’ access, retention and learning within schools. A sound data collection and analysis system allows countries to elaborate context-specific and appropriate policy measures, as well as monitor and evaluate their implementation process and their outcomes. Thus, collecting data on children with disabilities is of utmost importance. Since disability is the ‘result of the interaction between an individual’s functional limitations and barriers in the environment’ the data collection system must include information on the constraints posed by school facilities, materials, human resources, among others (Mont, 2018).

Governments must strengthen their Education Management Information Systems (EMIS) ‘to collect reliable, objective and disaggregated data by disability and impairment type as well as report data on the accessibility and inclusiveness of the school system to inform educational planning’ (UNICEF, 2014a: 29). For this purpose, the set of questions, known as the Child Functioning Module (CFM), developed by UNICEF and United Nation’s Washington Group on Disability Statistics can be included within their existing surveys (for more information consult UNICEF Data, 2018). UNESCO-led OpenEMIS initiative, which has incorporated the CFM, could also be used (Mont, 2018).

Community mobilization/advocacy campaigns

Negative attitudes toward disability –coming from parents, community members, schools, teachers and decision-makers– pose an enormous constraint when it comes to mainstream education for children with disabilities (Save the Children, 2002). Inclusive education lies in the common vision that all children have the right and, thus, should have the opportunity, to attend school, participate and learn.

Mobilizing positive attitudes and support from families, students, teachers, school leaders, and policy-makers is, therefore, a key pillar to creating inclusive education systems (UNICEF, 2013). Through community mobilization and public advocacy, stakeholders can comprehend disability as a social challenge. Through this perspective, they can see disability as the absence of opportunities for specific groups to develop their full potential and participate in society, rather than looking at disability as the ‘lacking’ of skills or abilities (Save the Children, 2002).

For instance, in a project developed in primary schools in Kenya, inclusion committees were created to increase the number of children with disabilities accessing inclusive primary schools (Elder and Kuja, 2019). The inclusion committees helped raise awareness about disability and inclusive education not only at the schools where the project was being implemented, but also within their communities. Participants indicated having shared information about disability rights and inclusive education with their respective church groups, women’s groups, employers, local community leaders and even with local media outlets. As a result, and thanks in large part to that ‘sensitisation’, the researchers witnessed an ‘influx of new-to-school students with disabilities’ throughout the project’s implementation (Elder and Kuja, 2019: 272).

Community ‘sensitisation’ can also be done through inclusive media outlets, where portrayals of children with disabilities and the importance of inclusive education are mobilized. This can help disseminate positive messages on persons with disabilities, tackle down stereotypes, as well as support inclusive education (UNICEF, 2013). An example of a successful campaign was done in Nepal, with the support of Save the Children UK, where stories of children with disabilities who accessed schools all over the country were publicised and helped raised awareness on their right to education (Save the Children, 2002).

Early childhood education and early interventions 

Research shows that the most cost-effective interventions for children with disabilities, and which will have the greatest impact throughout their entire life, are those performed during their early childhood –from 0 to 6 years old (Save the Children, 2002). The following strategies are recommended:

Ministries of Education should ensure that early-childhood education programmes are inclusive. Initiatives done by NGOs can provide educational planners with a lot of insight. For instance, Save the Children in Armenia supports the government’s policies to create inclusive early childhood education programmes through the development of School-based Early Childhood Development services (Sargsyan, 2016).

Ministries of Education, in cooperation with teacher training institutes, should ensure that teachers in charge of early childhood education programmes are adequately trained and equipped with screening tools to allow them to identify children’s difficulties and disabilities, as well as those at risk of disability. After such intervention, the school, in cooperation with relevant ministries, can provide from the onset appropriate support treatment –especially for impairments which can be prevented– and assistive devices. For example, since 1994 India trains and equips teachers to screen for visual impairments in schools (Rohwerder, 2017).

Ministries of Education must ensure that the screening tools being used at schools are effective. ‘Appropriate screening tools must be quick; low cost; acceptable to the community; easy to use by grass root level workers; and have high specificity and sensitivity’ (Robertson et al, 2012, cited by Rohwerder, 2017: 2). After the screening in-depth assessment, specific follow-up of actions should be ensured (UNICEF, 2013). Although teachers provide the first phase of the screening, it is necessary to coordinate actions with other sectors, such as the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Ministry of Health, to put in place a wide-ranging system and provide adequate responses (Rohwerder, 2017). Along with such measures, some recommended strategies are to ‘include a mapping of the available services, the development of referral protocols and the preparation of informative materials for families on how to adjust children’s surroundings to enhance functioning and participation in home and community life’ (UNICEF, 2013: 19). Families’ and communities’ involvement and understanding of screening programmes are of utmost importance.

Research shows that the most cost-effective interventions for children with disabilities, and which will have the greatest impact throughout their entire life, are those performed during their early childhood –from 0 to 6 years old (Save the Children, 2002). The following strategies are recommended:

Ministries of Education should ensure that early-childhood education programmes are inclusive. Initiatives done by NGOs can provide educational planners with a lot of insight. For instance, Save the Children in Armenia supports the government’s policies to create inclusive early childhood education programmes through the development of School-based Early Childhood Development services (Sargsyan, 2016).

Ministries of Education, in cooperation with teacher training institutes, should ensure that teachers in charge of early childhood education programmes are adequately trained and equipped with screening tools to allow them to identify children’s difficulties and disabilities, as well as those at risk of disability. After such intervention, the school, in cooperation with relevant ministries, can provide from the onset appropriate support treatment –especially for impairments which can be prevented– and assistive devices. For example, since 1994 India trains and equips teachers to screen for visual impairments in schools (Rohwerder, 2017).

Ministries of Education must ensure that the screening tools being used at schools are effective. ‘Appropriate screening tools must be quick; low cost; acceptable to the community; easy to use by grass root level workers; and have high specificity and sensitivity’ (Robertson et al, 2012, cited by Rohwerder, 2017: 2). After the screening in-depth assessment, specific follow-up of actions should be ensured (UNICEF, 2013). Although teachers provide the first phase of the screening, it is necessary to coordinate actions with other sectors, such as the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Ministry of Health, to put in place a wide-ranging system and provide adequate responses (Rohwerder, 2017). Along with such measures, some recommended strategies are to ‘include a mapping of the available services, the development of referral protocols and the preparation of informative materials for families on how to adjust children’s surroundings to enhance functioning and participation in home and community life’ (UNICEF, 2013: 19). Families’ and communities’ involvement and understanding of screening programmes are of utmost importance.

* For more on this subject, consult Policy page School readiness.

Make schools as well as learning and teaching material accessible

All education facilities should be accessible. Article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) calls upon the States to conceive universally designed facilities and develop minimum standards to ensure that facilities are accessible (UN General Assembly, 2007). It is thus recommended that governments develop standards and guidelines to ensure that their education infrastructure –and other public spaces– are accessible to all children and individuals (UNESCO-Global Education Monitoring Report, 2018). For example, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, based on the principles of Universal Design, developed a legally binding set of norms and standards for all public schools in 2013 (UNESCO-Global Monitoring Report, 2018).

It is essential for governments to monitor the compliance of infrastructure with the aforementioned standards. To do this, a recommended strategy is to include information concerning school’s accessibility through the EMIS (e.g. the Child Functioning Module (CFM) can be used for this purpose).

* For more specific policy recommendations, consult the Policy page School infrastructure.

In addition, decision-makers, planners, school leaders, teachers, and other pertinent stakeholders, should:

• Conceive accessible teaching methods and classroom practices (for specific policy recommendations consult the Policy page Classroom practices).
• Ensure that all learning and teaching materials, the curriculum, and learning assessments are accessible (for more information consult the following Policy pages: Textbook availability and content, Curriculum development, Student learning assessments, and Individual learning needs).
• Ensure appropriate and sufficient provision of teaching aids, and thus, assistive devices (for more information consult the Policy page Availability of teaching aids).
• Ensure that the language of instruction provided is appropriate (for specific policy recommendations consult the Policy page Language of instruction).

Decreasing distance to school

School distance can affect children with disabilities’ attendance in schools and could eventually lead to drop-out.

*For specific policy recommendations consult the general section of the present Policy page.

Provide a safe and welcoming school environment

In order to include children with disabilities in mainstream schools, educational planners, school leaders, teachers, students, parents, and community members should collaborate in creating a safe, welcoming, and supportive school climate.

*For policy recommendations consult the general section of the present Policy page, as well as the Policy page School climate.

Other policy options

Conditional cash transfers

Supporting families of children with disabilities is very important as they face higher costs of living. For instance, families with children with disabilities have an additional cost of life which ranges from 9 percent in Viet Nam to 69 percent in the United Kingdom (UNICEF, 2013). Cash transfer programmes in this context is a recommended policy option, nonetheless, routine monitoring and evaluation of the transfers’ effects on children’s educational achievements, among others, is key to ensure that the objectives are being attained (UNICEF, 2013).

Flexible delivery modes

An inclusive education system requires a flexible approach regarding school organization as well as teaching and learning processes (UNICEF, 2013). More than accommodating the school schedules, an inclusive school must adapt to the particular learning needs of children with disabilities. This can be done by providing the appropriate adaptations to the curriculum, classroom practices, learning material, learning assessments, among others.

* For specific policy recommendations consult the following Policy pages: Curriculum development, Classroom practices, Textbook availability and content, Student learning assessments, and Individual learning needs.

Flexible learning strategies/alternative learning programmes

Building inclusive education systems is a process and thus requires a gradual transition from specialized or integrated approaches (UNESCO, 2015a). Decision-makers must keep in mind that while it is necessary to move towards more inclusionary practices, in specific cases, for certain children, attending specialized or integrated settings might be recommended. Throughout such transition, hybrid policies including aspects of inclusive, integrated, and special education can be recognized all together. For example, during IIEP’s and UNICEF’s Technical Round Table: Inclusion of children with disabilities in education sector planning in French-speaking Africa, held in July 2019 in Paris, participant countries clearly illustrated that while their final goal is to develop an inclusive education system, many among them still have aspects regarding the special and integrated approach throughout their policy and legal framework. Another example is the case of Viet Nam where the 2010 Disability Law states that all mainstream settings must be inclusive and thus a transition from specialized schools must be done, yet the Education Strategy from 2011-2020 granted more investment to specialized centres (UNESCO, 2015a).

Ministries of Education and all relevant stakeholders –such as NGOs, Disabled Peoples’ Organisations (DPOs), families, communities, school leaders– must work together to ensure that while the gradual process towards inclusive mainstream settings becomes operational, alternative learning programmes are reaching out and answering to the needs of all children with disabilities. 

Open and Distance Learning

Whenever Open and Distance Learning opportunities are offered to children, Ministries of Education and all relevant stakeholders involved must ensure that they are inclusive, so that all children, including children with disabilities, can easily access them and thus benefit from the same educational opportunities.

* For a specific policy guide regarding inclusive ICTs consult UNESCO; UNESCO; European Agency for Special Needs and inclusive Education; G3ict. 2014.

Policies for displaced populations and host communities

Contents under review

Policies for minority populations

Contents under review

Policies for OVCs and HIV-affected populations

Promising policy options

Supporting children affected by HIV/AIDS

The following recommendations should be considered:

Promote school policies that specifically support children affected by HIV/AIDS, including prohibiting school officials from excluding children from attending school due to their HIV status (or perceived status), or the status of the child’s family members. Administrative procedures, such as registration, should be re-evaluated, to ensure they do not create barriers for children who do not have family support.

Take immediate measures to address stigma and discrimination within the administration and student body, promoting an environment of tolerance and acceptance. Make sure that the curriculum addresses this stigma, and includes HIV and health education.

Facilitate counselling, education, and support programmes and work in cooperation with NGOs, civil society, and community-based organizations to identify and monitor Orphan and Vulnerable Children (OVC) and children affected by HIV/AIDS and provide them with any needed extra assistance.

Increase teacher awareness about individual students’ home circumstances and teacher training on providing support (see the section Increasing schools’ awareness of children’s home circumstances in the general section of the present Policy page).