Availability of textbooks

Promising policy options

Sustainable, secure and transparent system

Adapted regulation, laws and institutional capacities in order to avoid bypasses and piracy (National book policy).

Audit of the budget spent on textbooks provision: corruption with publishers and printers is accurate in a centralised system as well as decentralized ones. Official audits are important to trace the money spent on textbooks and ensure the sustainability of the provision.

Decentralized offices of the ministry have to declare officially the number of textbooks needed so the budget can be traced, and provision can respect the exact quantity needed. (In decentralized or centralized system).

Giving schools or community accountability for holding official textbooks lists of orders and verify if they are respected. The community can also be accountable for audit tasks.

Assessment of the procurement process by professional officers each four or five years (availability surveys) so progress can be measured and changes can be implemented. Smaller surveys more regularly to assess the exact level of teaching and learning materials (TLM).

Coherent content

Textbooks should follow curricula in order for the schooling to be coherent and should be updated when there are changes. This helps also teachers to have material support for their lessons and give them the main keys to deliver them.

Colors, illustrations and text density are important to consider and should be set according to the grade. Their appropriateness can improve pupils’ concentration and understanding and encourage them to use textbooks.

Making inclusive content, human-right based, global citizenship approach

Gender equality via text, illustrations, characters and their roles in the textbooks is fundamental to have inclusive content, with a human-right based, global citizenship approach.

Textbooks should highlight different points of view or be written in different languages in order to avoid offering one strict vision of the society in countries where there are various ones (cultural, linguistic and religious diversity).

Promotion of the environment: textbooks’ authors should refer to some of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and stress the importance for the young and next generations to take care of environment, and sensitize them to these issues. Promoting actions related to SDGs 11(sustainable cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 13 (climate action) would sure make an impact in children’s minds about the respect on the environment.

Teachers’ role

Teachers can help in the redaction (or revision) of textbooks and should be trained to use these textbooks in the most effective way in class. The content of textbooks can either only give teachers basic information for them to construct a class lesson or can provide almost all the necessary information for the pupils.

Teacher guides, when produced together with textbooks, can give pedagogical keys to teachers in order for them to teach the curriculum the best way possible. Decision-makers should not underestimate their importance and dedicate a certain part of the budget in their development and provision so teachers can consult them at school when they need it. Three main issues must be considered:

• the quality of the guides (coherence with the curriculum, illustration of the main objectives and examples of activities to organize inside the classroom), their availability, and the possibility to have access to them online;
• their availability in the school: sharing these manuals between teachers may also be a good idea to encourage them to communicate and share their teaching experience; and
• the possibility to have access to these resources online.

* For more on this subject, consult Policy page Teacher guides and lesson plans.

Other policy options

Making a cost-effective textbook policy

Two main policies exist to have a cost-effective textbook policy: Consumer funding or producer funding.

• Consumer funding: The State funds the schools or parents for them to buy textbooks, encourage decentralization and diversified choice of textbooks according to the demand.
• Producer funding: State funds the textbook suppliers, encourages centralized supply.

Multiple ways of textbook provision exist. The State can have a monopoly of only one textbook or provide a list of approved textbooks. The private sector can also have a monopoly or a list of approved textbooks; the questions raised are relative to the diversity of textbooks that can be offered. A list of approved textbooks can take into account the social diversity of the pupils and adapt to it, whereas the monopoly provides equal and similar education support to all pupils. The difference between State and private sector decisions is that prices can be lower if the private sector’s decision brings competitiveness, however, it can also be quite different from curricula.

The textbook chain of production can also have multiple configurations. It can be organized as a public-private partnership, be set up through a State centralized decision, include competitive bidding by private actors, or the State can have a monopoly with printers, publishers and distributors.

A final element that needs to be taken into consideration is the rationalization of textbook costs. This can be achieved through the reduction of the textbook’s size and the number of pages, by prioritising certain subjects and core content, by choosing the paper quality or by the use of four colours. Note that these decisions need to be taken into account while keeping in mind the quality and usefulness of the resulting textbook.

Provision to improve fair distribution

The provision of textbooks can be either by the centralised or decentralised provision. Bulk or local level purchase can help avoid corruption and waste of scarce resources, with bulk helping in decreasing the prices of textbooks.

In the classroom, when not all schools have access to textbooks, one possibility could be to reduce the ratio of textbooks per pupil: from 1:1 to 1:2 or 1:3 in all other schools in order to ensure full coverage of textbooks in all schools. Then, progressively aim at having one textbook per pupil. Conversely, another strategy would be to reduce the number of textbooks required per pupil for given subjects.

Having good quality paper and covers means textbooks can be used for several years without having to be replaced, and thus implies a more efficient use of resources in the long run, even if it means a higher investment initially.

Implement a punishment system when pupils do not use textbooks carefully to encourage them to respect teaching and learning materials.

E-material, e-textbooks, CD-ROM

Some countries are considering substituting totally basic textbooks to e-material. However, this can cost a lot without having the expected results. Governments should rather use e-material as a complement to existing teaching and learning materials.

For instance, in Uruguay, the government implement the Plan Ceibal in 2007. This plan consists of providing each pupils entering public education with a computer with free access to the internet at school. The devices include teaching and learning materials and aim at encouraging pupils to work via new technologies in an inclusive way. However, this plan rather improves equity among pupils, than educational outcomes.

The World Bank also initiated diverse projects to include ICTs in education. One example could be the program One Laptop per Child – OLPC- which was first implemented in Peru in 2012.  This program aimed at providing each child with a laptop and around one million devices were distributed. If results about the access to technologies are very optimistic, education outcomes are more mitigated (based on reading and math results).

The World Bank also supports projects which are oriented to higher educational levels or to teachers, classrooms and schools management and monitoring.

Policy options for improving Equity and Inclusion

Gender-responsive policies

Promising policy options

Making textbooks accessible to all students

Brugeilles and Cromer (2009) illustrate the link between girl’s underachievement and textbooks. One of the explanations given is the fact that girls’ access to textbooks is lower than that of boys. It is recommendable for Ministries of Education and schools to explore and develop management systems to track textbooks’ usage and ensure that all students benefit equally from textbooks available (Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009; Mlama et al., 2005).

Review existent textbooks and develop new gender-responsive textbooks

Ministries of Education should ensure that existent textbooks are reviewed periodically to tackle down gender-bias and stereotypes represented throughout the content and illustrations (Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009; UNESCO, 2015; UNESCO, 2016g; UNESCO, 2017; UNESCO, 2018). The three dimensions of gender-bias which should be removed from textbooks are: ‘(a) underrepresentation, (b) stereotyped depictions of gender roles, occupations and attributes, and (c) [insufficient] presentation of positive gender content and role models’ (Blumberg, 2015: 20). Regarding new textbooks, it is recommendable to develop them from the onset as gender-responsive (Blumberg, 2015).

The following short-, medium- and long-term policies and strategies should be taken into account when reviewing and developing gender-responsive textbooks. Political will and stakeholders’ support is of utmost importance to review existent textbooks and/or develop new gender-responsive ones (Blumberg, 2015; UNESCO, 2016g).

In multiple countries, the aim to eliminate gender-bias from textbooks at a national level has been explicitly reflected through national education strategies (e.g. this has been done in countries such as Viet Nam, Ghana, Bangladesh, Guinea, Nepal and Pakistan (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015). For instance, Viet Nam’s National Strategy on Gender Equality 2011-2020 calls for textbook’s review (UNESCO, 2016g; UNESCO, 2018).).

Stakeholders’ support is essential throughout the review and development process (Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009). In fact, a lack of support from relevant stakeholders and the wider society overall will not only limit policy reforms, but will also ultimately inhibit the removal of gender-bias in teaching and learning materials (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015).  

Involve multiple stakeholders in the process, especially those who oppose to the development of gender-responsive textbooks (Blumberg, 2015). Name some leaders –also known as ‘champions’– to present the reforms to top government officials and other stakeholders (Blumberg, 2015).

Involve institutions responsible for textbook production, which can be either private or public. While this varies from country to country their participation is of utmost importance (e.g. even though Pakistan’s 2001-2015 EFA Action Plan aimed to eradicate gender-bias in textbooks, the resistance from the institutions responsible for textbook production contributed to the low political priority given to such review  (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015).).

Involve parents and the civil society in the process and get their support to monitor textbook’s content (e.g. in 2016 in South Africa after a parent raised the issue of a textbook’s content through social media a petition was formed ultimately leading the publisher to amend the content (Davies, 2016 cited by UNESCO, 2018).)

Teachers have a major role to play regarding textbook’s review. When textbook’s review process has not been done yet, teachers should be encouraged to adapt the content themselves inside the classroom to make it gender-responsive (Mlama et al., 2005; INEE, 2010). For instance, they can provide complementary examples, illustrations and interpretations. Teachers should also be encouraged and supported to develop their own gender-responsive teaching and learning materials. An essential step for this is ensuring that teachers are well-trained and are able to adapt the content inside the classroom to make it gender-responsive.

In the context of an education system that recives support of any kind from external or internal donor, it is essential to involve said donors in the process. 

Provide sufficient funds for the review of existent books and the development of new gender-responsive textbooks. This policy reform usually requires international donor’s involvement and support (e.g. ‘in Chile and Pakistan, UNESCO played an important role in funding early and influential research on gender bias in textbooks’ (Blumberg, 2015: 21).)

Some recommendations to produce gender-responsive textbooks are:

• pay attention on how female, male and LGBTIQ communities are or will be represented throughout the textbooks (Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009; UNESCO, 2016g);
• develop textbook’s characters from a gender-perspective (for more information consult Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009; UNESCO, 2017.); and
• pay attention to both the content and the illustrations as well as the links between both (Brugeilles and Cromer, 2009).

The Ministry of Education should issue and enforce guidelines, such as gender-explicit Terms of Reference (ToR), to ensure that the textbooks being developed are gender-responsive from the onset (Blumemberg, 2015). Ministries of Education must make sure that the institution in charge of developing the textbook –it can be a team of authors within the MoE or an external publisher– agree to those TORs before starting the production. Afterwards, a team of evaluators, including a gender specialist, should analyse whether or not the textbooks produced comply with those gender-explicit TORs and in case they don’t they would be sent back for revision (e.g. this has been done in Chile where external academic evaluators carry out an assessment of the textbooks’ compliance with the Terms of Reference (Blumberg, 2015).). For existent textbooks, gender-audits can be performed (e.g. UNESCO funded this initiative in Jordan and Pakistan (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015). (For a guideline to analyse textbook’s gender-responsiveness consult ‘Sheet#5 Textbook Analysis’ at UNESCO Bangkok, 2009).

Provide gender-responsive training for professionals responsible of developing the guidelines for textbook production and approving textbooks for use (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015). Ministries of Education should provide gender-responsive training opportunities for their staff members, so that they can collaborate on the textbook’s reform initiative as well as other gender-related initiatives. In this case, the ‘training of trainers’ model can be implemented to reduce costs (Blumberg, 2015). It is essential to include male trainers in the process (Blumberg, 2015).  

Teacher’s training in the use of new gender-responsive textbooks is of utmost importance (Blumberg, 2015). Additionally, as expressed before, teachers can be taught practical skills to correct gender-bias found on non-reviewed textbooks within the classroom (e.g. through gender-responsive training teachers can be taught to be aware of gender stereotypes in textbooks and how to use them positively, for example by ‘prompting open questions about the content and encouraging critical thinking in terms of gender issues’ (INEE, 2010: 53).)

It is essential to teach students to ‘recognize gender bias in textbooks so that they can transcend their current educational materials’ (Blumberg, 2015: 22).

Policies for children with disabilities

Promising policy options

Ensure textbooks appreciate diversity and eliminate discriminatory and negative portraits of peoples with disabilities

In an inclusive education system, Ministries of Education should ensure that the textbooks provided promote diversity. This implies representing peoples with disabilities in a positive, accurate and authentic way (UNESCO, 2016g) (see Annex 1). Existent textbooks should be reviewed to remove any harmful stereotype and to increase the representation of peoples with disabilities within them (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2019; DFID, 2010). As expressed by Hodkinson, Ghajarieh and Salami: ‘all learners must be able to “find themselves and their world represented in the books from which they learn”. Incorporating the issues of people with disabilities into the textbooks of mainstream schools […] could be a step towards reducing the alienation of pupils with disabilities in regular schools’ (2016: 8).

Annex 1

Empowering image of disability in a primary schools civics textbook (Mexico)

Source: Herrera et al., 2014, retrieved from UNESCO. 2016g. Textbooks pave the way to sustainable development. Global Education Monitoring Report Policy Paper 28. Paris: UNESCO

Ensure a timely provision of accessible textbooks

In order to meet the diversity of needs and learning patterns of all students, Ministries of Education should ensure from the outset the provision of accessible and flexible textbooks (CAST and LD OnLine, 2007; Stahl, 2004; UNESCO, 2019; WHO, 2011). Alternate-format teaching materials can be provided to students with disabilities in the following categories: braille, audio, large-print and e-text or digital text (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2019; Stahl, 2004; UNESCO, 2019; UNICEF, 2014).

Ministries of Education must ensure that all of the approved books are available in those alternate forms. In order to do so, a number of strategies are recommended.

Enact an accessible textbook legislation. In many countries, legislations are enacted to specify the way in which accessible textbooks are created. This allows schools to establish procurement processes and ensure quality and timely distribution to all schools, so that students with disabilities receive their textbooks at the same time as their peers (Kenya, 2009; CAST and LD OnLine, 2007; Stahl, 2004).

Additionally, it is recommended to enact a Copyright Law to allow mass production and availability of alternate format textbooks (e.g. Section 121 of United States’ Copyright Act, allows certain entities to create alternate formats without seeking permission from the copyright holder (Stahl, 2004); in Kenya, the Ministry of Education seeks copyrights from publishers to produce the teaching and learning materials for students with special needs and disabilities (Kenya, 2009).) 

Allocate adequate funds for accessible teaching and learning materials. Ministries of Education and partners should ensure adequate resources to provide every book in an accessible format (e.g. Kenya’s National Special Needs Education Policy Framework, calls for an adequate allocation of funds for teaching and learning materials for children with disabilities (Kenya, 2009); in Mexico and Chile, the way in which their MoE finance inclusive education is by providing sufficient resources to the particular needs of institutions, such as financing the teaching materials (WHO, 2011)). Additionally, the government should study the possibility of providing textbooks in alternative formats for free to children with disabilities (UNESCO, 2009d).)

Enhance the collaboration between pertinent stakeholders and a clear distribution system to provide accessible textbooks within schools (e.g. in Ontario the school boards ensure that teaching and learning materials are available in e-text format (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2019)).

Make sure to include parents, students, teachers in the process of deciding which alternate formats should be used and when (PACER Center, 2011) (for more details on alternate-formats depending on specific disabilities consult Stahl, 2004 and Stahl, 2010.). This responsibility could also be delegated to the Individualised Education Programme (IEP) team (e.g. this is the case in the United States (CAST and LD OnLine, 2007).). 

‘Technological advances during the past fifty years have resulted in alternate-format materials, providing those with disabilities new access to a world of information and ideas that traditionally has been restricted to printed text’ (Stahl, 2004: 24). There are multiple alternate-format materials which facilitate students’ with disabilities learning process, for example, texts read out-loud by synthetic or human voice, synchronization with word by word or sentence-by-sentence highlighting (for more precise details and specific recommendations of favorable methods for each type of disability consult Stahl, 2010).

Policies for displaced populations and host communities

Promising policy options

All policy options recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply to this category.

Promising policy options

Promote alternative modes of learning

Open textbooks are a way to significantly reduce student textbook costs while giving instructors the flexibility to reformat and customise their course material. They are an affordable, flexible alternative to traditionally-published textbooks.

Mobile Learning is learning of any type designed to take place through a personal handheld electronic device, such as a smartphone/tablet/laptop. Such learning is mobile because it is not confined to the classroom or home but can take place anywhere. Since it is not school-based, it has no time constraints.

Another potential policy is computer-aided language learning. This is an example where existing resources can be of assistance to displaced learners, whether as a support for classroom instruction or for independent study. For example, Duolingo, the popular language-learning app with several million subscribers. It provided students language course material worth one semester in just 34 hours.

For more information on the financial aspects of lack of textbooks, refer to Policy pages: Insufficient budget, High unit costs, Financial constraints and Distribution of Teaching and Learning Materials (TLM). For more information on inclusive content of textbooks, refer to Curriculum Policy page.

Policies for minority populations

All policy options recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply to this category.

For more information on the financial aspects of lack of textbooks, refer to Policy pages: Insufficient budget, High unit costs, Financial constraints and Distribution of Teaching and Learning Materials (TLM). For more information on inclusive content of textbooks, refer to Curriculum Policy page.