Insufficient budget for school construction

Schools may be unavailable due to the lack of budget to cover new school construction costs. Strategies to rectify this issue include those that address increasing the budget, improving planning and budgeting mechanisms, as well as alternatives to building new schools such as using existing infrastructure within the community, or multi-shift schooling. (Note that reducing unit costs is addressed in the Policy page High construction costs). Some of these alternatives will be more appropriate as short term solutions, but are nevertheless preferable to students being left without a space to receive an education. It should still however always be ensured that schools meet regulatory standards, are accessible, safe, child friendly, have sufficient water and sanitation facilities, and provide a positive learning environment.

Promising policy options

Increase the overall government budget through tax revenue 

Increasing national tax revenue is key to expanding education financing. This can be achieved through measures to build up the progressive tax system, fairer taxation of multinationals and corporations, reducing exemptions and ineffective incentives, and reducing corruption and tax avoidance. Reducing tax exemptions alone could have a significant impact on the overall education budget. For example, in Kenya, it was estimated that total incentives and exemptions in 2012 equalled $1.1 billion a year, which could double the public primary education budget (Mowe & Walker, 2016).

Increase tax revenue by building up a progressive tax system, which taxes wealth, corporations, property, and high-level incomes, while limiting regressive taxes that burden the poor such as VAT. Include the informal sector in tax collection, and diversify the tax base, with small and medium businesses.

Eliminate tax breaks and exemptions, particularly the incentives which are not shown to be strong determinants for investment, such as discretionary incentives, tax holidays, free zones, and stability agreements.

Close loopholes that allow tax evasion, and push for stronger tax and royalty arrangements for extractive industries. Reduce corruption by giving civil societies roles in overseeing budgeting processes. Reduce energy subsidies, and push towards removing international restrictions on government borrowing.

Increase government spending on the education sector

It is generally recommended that governments spend at least 20% of public expenditure and 6% of GDP on education (Mowe and Walker, 2016; UNESCO, 2014c). Good quality education, including adequate school infrastructure, simply cannot be provided without a sufficient amount of domestic expenditure being allocated to the education sector, which may require reprioritizing and cutting back in other sectors.

Commit to designating at least 20% of government budgets to education. Reprioritize and rationalize spending in other sectors, through the reduction of energy subsidies, examining defense spending, and examining debt servicing.

Reduce corruption, and advocate for the public demand for education, to add political pressure to increase the portion of government spending allocated to education. 

Improve budget processes and resource management

The lack of funds for school construction may be related to inadequate budget processes that do not sufficiently distribute funds between educational sectors, or that incorrectly estimate costs. Improving education financial management and budget processes can facilitate the availability of adequate school construction funds.

To reduce corruption and maximize resource efficiency, there should also be clear frameworks that promote competitiveness in the awarding of construction contracts. Reducing corruption will also involve carefully monitoring school construction expenditure to ensure that project costs stay within the designated budget. School construction is particularly susceptible to corruption because builders often have more knowledge about costs than the financers (The World Bank, 2013).

Budgets should be based on adequate and transparent information. An informed budget process should have explicit criteria to determine funds allocation, utilizing reliable and updated data. Budget needs to be planned and executed with transparent practices and comprehensive documentation, and public reports of education budgets should be made available for the general public.

Improve resource efficiency, by putting systems in place that account for the use of financial resources. Frameworks that promote transparency in and competitiveness in construction contracts should be installed, by publicly announcing awarded contracts for school construction, to ensure the best value for money and reduce corruption, by making sure contract procurement policies have a process in place to address complaints, and by making audits in educational expenditure.

Monitor and document school construction expenditure, ensuring that expenditures align with what is designated in the budget.

Improve planning mechanisms and resource allocation

In some countries, school construction resources are not correctly allocated to reflect the actual distribution of students across geographical locations. This can result in certain schools having empty classrooms, while nearby areas are left unable to meet their infrastructure needs. There is also the issue of clientelism and corruption, which results in resources being awarded on the basis of connections. Improving construction resource allocation may require adjusting national norms and planning mechanisms, and putting in place measures to promote transparency and reduce corruption. Decentralized planning may be more effective in correctly assessing infrastructure requirements.

Some elements to consider to achieve this are:

• strive for transparency in allocation decisions;
• use financial simulation models;
• review and modify national norms and standards on resource allocation;
• consider decentralized planning methods; and
• engage with school communities to correctly assess and address construction needs.

Maintenance of existing schools

School maintenance is a proven cost-effective strategy that is often overlooked. Regular school maintenance reduces the need for premature renovation and repairs, thereby freeing up funds that can then be used towards new school construction. The government should allocate funds specifically dedicated to on-going school maintenance throughout a building’s life when originally budgeting for classroom construction and should prioritize the use of durable materials during the construction process. Regular school maintenance is also a valuable opportunity for community involvement; simple daily chores can be performed by the school children themselves, while parents and other community members can contribute to larger repair tasks.

Decreasing unit costs

* See Policy page High unit costs.

Other policy options

Funding support from development partners and/or local contribution

When national resources cannot sufficiently cover school construction costs, funding support can be provided from external partners (consult and apply the Abidjan Principles). In some countries, construction projects are heavily dependent on foreign aid, with donor funds accounting for 100% of school construction costs (Theunyck, 2002). Construction projects can be attractive to international donors because there are often restrictions on providing aid for recurrent costs such as teacher salaries. However, aid for construction projects is often delivered through stand-alone projects and separate project implementation units (PIUs) which can result in undermined government leadership, policy fragmentation and the weakened development of long-term institutional capacity (Theunyck, 2009). Sector-wide approaches, as described below, can allow aid for construction projects to be better aligned with national programmes, and contribute to strengthened national capacity and leadership.

Favour sector-wide approaches, to donor programmes such as (Theunyck, 2009) :

• collaboration and harmonization with country system and priorities;
• strong country government leadership, defining their own construction strategies;
• pooled donor resources. Expenditure framework linked with country’s macroeconomic framework and poverty reduction strategy;
• donors should utilize communities and the private sector in construction projects.

Additional support in the face of restricted resources can also include contributions from local authorities and communities, who can provide cash contributions as well as in-kind contributions such as building materials, and labour. These types of contributions can promote community involvement and ownership over construction projects.

Use of existing buildings for schools

Existing unoccupied buildings within communities can be utilized as learning spaces in lieu of new school construction. This strategy is most appropriate for sparsely populated rural areas in which one-roomed schooling would be required. This solution is not ideal, as the spaces may not be adapted to be optimal learning environments for students, however, it can be a short-term solution in the face of budget constraints. It generally uses community spaces, youth centres, religious centres, and even homes. It is particularly appropriate in sparsely populated, rural areas. However, this is only a short-term strategy.

Small school model with multi-grade teaching

While there is a tendency for large school construction, a small school model with multi-grade teaching might be more appropriate for rural areas with low population density. This model can be less costly overall, and minimizes travel distance, which is another prominent barrier to schooling. A one-room school could effectively accommodate a village population of under 240 has been found to be at least effective or even more effective for learning outcomes compared to single-grade teaching and schools can then be expanded if the population increases (see Annex 1).

Annex 1

School size and minimum village population required

Source: Theunynck, S. 2009. School construction for universal primary education in Africa: Should communities be empowered to build their schools? Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/109291468007863249/pdf/488980PUB0prim101Official0Use0Only1.pdf

Double-shift Schooling

Double-shift or multiple-shift schooling allows schools to hold multiple sessions during the day for different sets of students. This permits the use of existing school infrastructure, rather than creating new buildings or investing in expansion, allowing significant cost-savings. However, this shortened school day often means an overall lower quality of education and reduced student learning outcomes. (For more on this subject, see Policy page Double-Shift Schooling).

Open and Distance Learning

Distance education or open and distance learning, refers to education where the constraints of time and space are removed, and students can learn remotely using various information and communication technologies, rather than attending a school campus. Mobile electronic devices such as phones, media players, and tablet computers are becoming increasingly affordable and common throughout the world, and offer new possibilities in reaching populations that are unable to attend physical school campuses. While open and distance learning is primarily used for tertiary education, teacher training, and other programmes targeting adults, there are also opportunities for it to be applied to primary levels. Kenya recently launched a distance learning program using radio broadcasts, to reach nomadic populations. However, programmes may not be sufficiently developed yet to adequately replace in-person primary education models. Other challenges include safety and privacy issues, and education quality.

Policy options for improving Equity and Inclusion

Gender-responsive policies

Investing in gender-responsive school infrastructure can, directly and indirectly, support the access and retention of children in school, as well as strengthen gender equity and inclusion.

Decision-makers should keep in mind the following measures along with those suggested  in the general section of the present Policy page.

*For information concerning gender-responsive school infrastructure per se consult Policy pages School physical infrastructure and Buildings are not ready. 

Promising policy options

Gender-responsive budgeting and gender analysis

Gender-responsive budgeting (GRB) means that gender should be mainstreamed throughout budget frameworks and allocation systems. Public funds attributed to school construction should equally meet the needs of all boys, girls, women and men and LGBTQI communities.

(For general information about gender-responsive budgeting consult UNESCO Bangkok, 2010).

Gender-responsive budgeting should be based on in-depth gender analysis. A number of examples of the impact of increasing the supply and quality of gender-responsive school infrastructure on girls’ and boys’ access and retention within schools are presented. For example, through the Education Enhancement Programme –implemented by the Government of Egypt from 1996 to 2006 with funding support from the European Union and the World Bank–, new schools were built in rural areas where girls’ enrolment was particularly low (UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015). As a result, ‘enrolment in the catchment areas of the new schools increased by 7-26 percent in some sites (5-21.5 percent for boys and 9-30.5 percent for girls)’ (The World Bank, 2008: 6). Although enrolment rates increased for all children, this project particularly benefited girls in 81.2 percent of the school districts (The World Bank, 2008).

A study done in Afghanistan emphasised that the demand for girls’ education is highly dependent on the availability of gender-responsive infrastructure and facilities (Jackson, 2011 cited by GPE and UNGEI, 2017).

Finally, in India, ‘the construction of single-sex toilets also had a positive impact on the share of female teachers at schools, which may also indirectly benefit girls’ (Adukia, 2014, cited by  UNESCO and UNGEI, 2015: 37). (For specific details on the importance of female teachers’ recruitment, deployment and retention consult Policy pages Appropriate candidates and Teachers deployment and retention). 

Policies for children with disabilities

Although all of the measures recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply, they should be analysed by having inclusion on the mind. Complimentary remarks and examples will be given in the present section regarding some of them, as well as additional specific policy recommendations.

Promising policy options

Increase the overall government budget through tax revenue 

All of the previously recommended policy options apply for this section, particularly the implementation of progressive taxation as well as tackling down tax avoidance (IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016). For example, a study revealed that the revenue lost due to tax avoidance in Tanzania would have covered the construction of 97,000 accessible new classrooms (GCE Global, 2013, cited by IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016).

Increase government spending on the education sector

*All of the previously recommended policy options apply for this section.

In order to build inclusive education systems, governments should prioritise the education sector and thus invest at least 20% of public expenditure and 6% of GDP (IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016; Mowe and Walker, 2016; UNESCO, 2014c).

Political commitment is necessary to ensure that the budget allocated to the education sector is geared towards building an inclusive system (for instance, by building accessible physical infrastructure). This political commitment should be highlighted through the Education Sector Plan, when available. For example, through a study done by the GPE, twenty-two out of the fifty-one ESPs analysed included specific activities related to improving schools’ facilities and infrastructure by investing in schools’ accessibility (GPE, 2018).

Disability-inclusive budgeting

Through the implementation of disability-inclusive budgeting, environmental barriers impeding children with disabilities to access, remain and learn in mainstream settings can be tackled down (IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016).

Budget directed towards inclusion should be mainstreamed throughout the entire education budget (instead of creating a separate budget specifically for children with disabilities) (IIEP-UNESCO, 2019). For instance, instead of mentioning in the budget ‘build new classrooms’, governments should specify ‘build new accessible classrooms’. In some cases –for example, when reasonable accommodations are needed–, specific and additional budget allocations may be necessary. 

Evaluate the total cost which represents the education of children with disabilities. The costs and different budgetary expenditures –such as building and/or accommodating classrooms to make them accessible– should be clearly defined (IIEP-UNESCO, 2019). Make sure to prioritize budget allocation for inclusive education, analyze and specify which expenditures can be covered by the governments, and integrate the budget for inclusive education within the Education Sector Plan.

Education systems do not necessarily have to increase resources to build an inclusive system. Instead, they should effectively mobilize and allocate existing funds for this purpose (Cheshire, 2019).

Choosing between centralized or decentralized budgeting can have an important impact on inclusive education. National budgeting means that the national government can guarantee that budgets are effectively being allocated towards building an inclusive education system, while decentralized systems imply that funds can adapt to local needs and support innovative inclusive practices (IIEP-UNESCO, 2019). In both cases, there must be a clear understanding and commitment to financing an inclusive education system (IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016).

Improve data availability concerning the accessibility of the school’s physical infrastructure and facilities

Gather data about the school’s accessibility to ensure adequate budget allocation: Include information concerning school’s physical accessibility through the Education Management Information Systems EMIS as well as national surveys. The Child Functioning Module (CFM) developed by UNICEF and United Nation’s Washington Group on Disability Statistics can be added to the existent EMIS in order to collect information about the school’s accessibility (UNICEF Data, 2018).

To have a comprehensive picture of the environmental barriers impeding children with disabilities to access the school and thus tackle them down,  schools’ accessibility should not be based solely on the availability of specific features such as ramps. It should also include data on how children are ‘getting to, entering and moving through the school; using water, sanitation and recreational facilities’ as well as school evacuation measures, among others (UNESCO-Global Education Monitoring Report, 2016: 311).

Other policy options

Funding support from development partners

Funding support from development partners should be geared towards ensuring the right to education for all and building inclusive, accessible, acceptable, adaptable education systems (reinforce the general education system). Support schemes should be time-bound and transparent (for more information consult: The Abidjan Principles, 2019).

Gear those funds towards building inclusive education systems, and thus building or upgrading school facilities so as to make them accessible. Development partners and agencies should include disability-responsiveness as the main criteria to allocate funds. For example, the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) solely finances school construction projects which incorporate Universal Design principles. For instance, through the Humqadam Schools Construction and Rehabilitation Programme (2015-2018), DFID supported the construction of 20 000 additional accessible classrooms (IECD, n.d.).

Development partners should publish and disaggregate their aid data in order to have a clear picture of the number of projects which contributed to building inclusive education systems, for instance, by making schools’ physical infrastructure accessible, among others.

Development partners and governments should work together to agree on minimum standards for the school’s physical accessibility and thus provide appropriate financial support. For example, this has been done in Ghana with the support of UNICEF (for more information consult Ghana, 2015).

Finding new sources of financing

Governments should explore new possibilities of collaboration with the private sector and local communities in order to fund their inclusive education system and thus construct accessible infrastructure and facilities (while respecting the Abidjan Principles).  

Public and private partnerships are very common regarding infrastructure projects (Brookings, 2015b cited by IDDC Inclusive Education Task Team, 2016). Governments should ensure that these partnerships are geared towards building accessible schools to ensure the right to education. For example, in Scotland, public and private partnerships were explored in order to construct new accessible schools and adapt existent ones (Audit Scotland and HMIE, 2003).

Mobilise and involve the community so as to finance accessible, cost-effective school infrastructure. For instance, involve local builders, local product suppliers, children with disabilities and their families, the local community, Disability People’s Organisations, teachers, school leaders, local education planners, among others, to fund the construction of accessible schools (UNICEF, 2014). 

Policies for displaced populations and host communities

Contents under review

Policies for minority populations

Contents under review