Teaching skills

On occasions, high drop-out and repetition rates in students can be traced back to issues of low academic level related to teachers. If such is the case, there are a number of strategies, short-, medium- and long-term, to address and correct this problem. These strategies can be categorized into those dealing with the formation of teachers, their inclusion into the workforce, and their promotion through time.

Promising policy options

In-class training and supervision

A quick and effective way of improving the academic level of teachers in the field, without having to perform additional training in specialised centres, is to carry out in-class training and supervision. The possibility to have experts giving counsel in the classrooms, in the topics on which the teacher needs reinforcement, can be a highly cost-effective method of improvement.

The training can be carried out either by specially trained government officials who go in the field, or by experienced teachers who assess and support their fellow professors. In the first case, the entry of government-instructed personnel into the school will have to be previously consulted and agreed on by all relevant stakeholders, as to prevent the training to be ineffective due to personal or political reasons. In the case where its fellow teachers who carry out the teaching and supervision in class, it must be done in such a way that the training is done following government-approved methodologies and themes. When possible, priority should be given to teachers with few or no initial education.

* For more information on this subject consult Policy page Content knowledge.

Curriculum reform for aspiring teachers

In order to align the needs of the students with what teachers learn during their formation, it might be necessary to reform the curriculum for aspiring teachers. This strategy is medium- to long-term, since from its implementation until the time of seeing the results, several years can pass. In general, a curriculum reform needs to be data-driven, using insights from students’ assessments and in-class analysis, in order to determine the source of problems and the appropriate changes to be made in what teachers learn.

Overall, it is a straightforward strategy with high potential benefits, which should be based on appropriate data: students’ assessments and In-class observations. 

Entry-level tests and trial period

One way of countering the entry of low-achieving teachers into the teaching workforce is to implement entry-level tests, followed by a 1-year trial period. The tests must be designed to assess if the aspiring teacher has acquired sufficient academic and teaching capacity to effectively engage with a classroom and if the minimum quality standards are being accomplished in the teachers’ formation. This test, designed bearing the students’ curriculum in mind, should include a complete review of everything needed to be an effective teacher. 

Once the aspiring teacher completes the appropriate knowledge tests, they should be sent to the field, to interact with a real classroom. This should be done with the direct supervision of a senior professor, who would be in charge of accompanying and surveying the new teacher, making sure that not only he or she possesses the necessary knowledge, but that the actual teaching capacities exist. Only candidates who successfully pass both the entry-level exam and the trial period can be admitted within the teaching profession. This will guarantee a high academic level for all new teachers.

* For more information on this subject consult Policy page Content knowledge.

Performance-based scholarships for aspiring teachers

It is imperative that only the most qualified applicants enter the process to become teachers. To ensure this, strategies such as a performance-based scholarship system and competitive salaries can be implemented. Scholarships can be given by the State-run teaching school (if any) or by private universities that offer teaching careers. Each choice implies different public policies and should be taken considering all stakeholders included. 

As other strategies presented in this policy page, this is a medium- to long-term strategy, since at the best it implies that the new teachers would take up their functions after completing the years it takes to finish teaching school. However, in the long run, it is a highly cost-effective policy, since the returns on investment would be high and help not only in creating a more prepared teaching workforce but would form better students, who, in turn, could be motivated to enter the teaching profession.

Distance training of teachers

In cases where there is good access to the internet, and where logistical constraints make a face-to-face training program difficult, a distance training of teachers is a highly cost-effective option to bridge gaps in an academic level. The development of capacities and the effective acquisition of knowledge through technological tools is a great way to train a large number of people, while more long-term strategies are put in place. This is particularly important when dealing with teachers in rural areas, who would otherwise not have the same opportunities to receive quality in-service training. These tools allow for quick interaction between teachers and trainers and give teachers tools to learn about their particular interests and challenges freely.

The main restriction to this approach, however, remains the installed ICT infrastructure, since it relies heavily on internet and electricity access, which can be often challenging. Yet, initiatives around the world have been developed to counter those challenges. For instance, Uganda’s in-service training platform known as Teachers’ E-learning Portal (TEP) was precisely conceived for places with inadequate access to computers and internet (Oyo, Kalema and Byabazaire, 2017). The platform is accessible both online and offline. Managed by local universities in collaboration with beneficiary schools, it encourages school’s management to support teacher’s study progress, leading to higher completion rates (Oyo, Kalema and Byabazaire, 2017).  

Other policy options

Give teachers licenses and scholarships to further specialize

In order to have teachers fill knowledge gaps and further specialize in their fields of knowledge, a possible public policy can be to give scholarships and monetary incentives for teachers to return to school to do Master programs, whether one- or two-year programs, on topics related with their teaching responsibilities. This possibility is a medium-term strategy since it implies a lag of at least one year before changes can be observed. It is also financially demanding, since in general Master programs cost more than Undergraduate programs, and requires full-time dedication, which would imply also monetary support throughout the academic formation.

It is important for these types of initiatives to be highly controlled by the government, in order to guarantee both that the programs chosen are directly related to the area of expertise and teaching of the teacher, and that the newly trained teachers return for a set number of years to the teaching workforce, in order to get an adequate return on investment. 

Performance- and position-based bonuses and promotions (based on unequal geographic distribution of low-achieving teachers)

In the case where the issue of low academic level related to teachers is unequally distributed throughout the country, several public policies can be implemented in an effort to have a more equitable system. In many countries, the entry-level test is used as a measure of the quality of teachers, with one of the incentives being that whoever scores higher on this test gets first-pick on where to be located. This leads in occasions to the best teachers self-selecting themselves into the best schools, the ones located in populated urban centres or the ones that have the students with the most advantaged socioeconomic characteristics. This naturally leads to the teachers with the lowest scores in the entry-level test going to the worst-off schools, or those located in remote, rural areas.

One strategy to solve this issue is to make promotions to certain positions, or monetary bonuses, available only to those teachers who choose to go to the worst-ranked schools. In that way, teachers wanting a promotion as head of a school will have to teach for a number of years in a lagged-behind school, which will ultimately help close the geographical gap between schools in the country, avoiding low-achieving teachers to concentrate in certain areas.

Hire professionals outside of the teaching profession

In occasions, when immediate corrections are needed within the teacher workforce, and the newly graduated teachers do not comply with the academic level required for the profession, it is conceivable to hire professionals from outside of the teaching profession to fill out positions within schools, particularly on areas of hard and social sciences. While this strategy might give oxygen to an educational system while additional changes are done to strengthen the teachers’ formation system, it should be used with caution. The teaching profession requires skills and abilities beyond those of academic knowledge (such as pedagogy and group management) and the use of professionals not trained to deal with school-level children might have unplanned repercussions.

Policy options for improving Equity and Inclusion

Gender-responsive policies

Promising policy options

Perform a gender assessment for teacher education

A gender assessment for teacher education allows decision-makers, heads of Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) and teachers to recognize the strengths and weaknesses regarding gender equity in teacher education and propose tailored responses to close existing gaps (UNESCO Bangkok, WeiDong Group and HNA Group of People’s Republic of China, n.d.). The six tools known as Gender Assessment Tools for Teacher Education (GATTE) can be mobilized for this purpose (consult the different tools at Bangkok, n.d.). After the assessments, educational planners and policy-makers will be able to develop data-driven solutions to the specific challenges encountered.

The following measures should be taken into account when aiming to improve teacher’s education gender-responsiveness (Mulugeta, 2012; UNESCO Bangkok, WeiDong Group and HNA Group of People’s Republic of China, n.d.):

• design teacher education policies, curriculum materials, and classroom practices taking into account the principles of gender equity;
• ensure teacher education and curriculum materials are gender-responsive; and
• ensure teachers mobilize gender-responsive teaching practices and language within the classrooms (for specific information consult Policy pages Classroom practices and Language of instruction).

Teacher training

Teachers’ knowledge of gender equity as well as their attitudes and mindsets impact student’s learning experiences (UNESCO Bangkok; WeiDong Group and HNA Group of People’s Republic of China, n.d.). Thus, teaching skills employed in the classroom should be gender-responsive. Teachers must value equally the ability to learn of all students and facilitate their learning process and progress to the fullest extent possible (USAID, n.d.). They must ensure class sessions are free of gender bias and geared towards deconstructing gender stereotypes. For this purpose, teachers must use an appropriate gender-sensitive language. (For more information consult Policy pages Classroom practices and Language of instruction). Moreover, quality pre-service and in-service teacher training should develop, in addition to content knowledge, gender-responsive knowledge, skills, and attitudes (For precise information consult Policy page Content knowledge).

Ministries of Education should ensure that governmental- and non-governmental-managed teacher training providers comply with a set of norms and standards regarding the gender-responsiveness of their curricula. Institutional reforms should be performed to mainstream gender throughout the training offer and curricula (in addition to offering specialized modules on gender). This should be done through a data-driven approach, for instance use insights from students’ assessments and in-class observations to determine the source of the gender gaps in student learning and provide the appropriate modifications to teachers’ training and their practice.
(For specific information about how to mobilise data from learning assessments consult Policy page Student learning assessments).

Recruiting trainers who possess a sound theoretical and practical knowledge on the incorporation of gender into teaching and on gender-responsive pedagogies, methods, management, and assessment practices is of outmost importance (UNESCO Bangkok, 2017b). Moreover, in order to guarantee that current teachers lacking these skills get up to date, the Ministry of Education –in close collaboration with external donors– should ensure the development and funding of continuous professional development opportunities, such as workshops, seminars, e-learning modules (Lumadi and Shongwe, 2010). 

Track teacher skills’ gender-responsiveness through classroom observation systems

Classroom observation systems can be used by educational planners and decision-makers to:

• Track the extent to which policies –taken at the national or local level– create inclusive, gender-responsive education systems, and how these are transforming teachers’ practice within the classrooms (e.g. teaching pedagogies, relationships between the teachers and the students, seating arrangements, language employed by teachers and students, among others.).
• Identify the persistent challenges faced by teachers while implementing gender-responsive pedagogies, as well as the gendered factors contributing to low levels of participation and learning attainment of students (Rimer et al., n.d.). This data can be used to generate tailored responses, such as training, information, support, and resources, meant to address teachers’ –and ultimately the student’s– needs.

* For more information consult Policy page Classroom practices supervision.

Distance training of teachers

Mainstream gender throughout the distance training offer (GPE and UNGEI, 2017). New distance training should be conceived through a gender perspective. If existent courses are implemented, they should be reviewed to increase gender equity in content, context, and terminology.

Moreover, developing specific gender-sensitivity distance training –for example, online gender tutorials as well as e-learning modules meant to improve teachers’ gender-responsive knowledge and skills– is proven to be a cost-effective measure (GPE and UNGEI, 2017).

* Consult Bostwana, 2008, for a country-based example of how to mainstream gender in open and distance learning. For a study on the role of distance education in Gender Equality and Women Empowerment consult Msoffe, 2016.

Policies for children with disabilities

Promising policy options

Adapt teacher training

An inclusive education system goes beyond the question of accessibility, as it must make sure that all students are engaged and participate actively in meaningful and tailored learning opportunities in the classroom (UNESCO, 2005c). To do this, teacher training (and the curricula) must be redesigned or adapted so that teachers have the necessary skills to respond to the needs of all children. Consider the following recommendations:

• Mainstream inclusive education within teacher training and its corresponding curricula (IDDC, 2013). Teachers must possess a robust theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as attitudes and values, on inclusive education (Howgego, Miles and Myers, 2014; Spratt and Florian, 2013; UNICEF, 2014).
• Involve multiple stakeholders in the process, including persons with disabilities.
• Ensure the reform is data-driven. For instance, use insights from students’ assessments and in-class observations to determine pressing challenges and provide appropriate responses through teachers’ training and its corresponding curriculum.

* For specific recommendations on how to adapt teachers’ training offer consult Policy page Content knowledge (section Children with disabilities).

* For specific policy options regarding inclusive instructional practices, classroom management, and classroom set-up consult Policy page Classroom practices (section Children with disabilities).

* For specific information on how to use data produced by inclusive learning assessments consult Policy page Student learning assessments.

Track inclusive practices through classroom observation systems

Track the extent to which policies taken at the national and local levels to create an inclusive education system is transforming teachers’ skills and classroom practice. Identify persistent challenges faced by teachers in inclusive education systems as well as the factors contributing to low levels of participation and learning attainment of students with disabilities in the classroom. Generate tailored responses, such as training, information, support, and resources, meant to address teachers’ –and ultimately the student’s– needs.

* For more information consult Policy page Classroom practices supervision.

Distance training of teachers

Distance training of teachers is a highly cost-effective option to enhance teachers’ skills necessary in inclusive education systems (IBE-UNESCO, 2016). For example, UK’s National College for Teaching and Learning NCTL offers advanced online modules on areas such as autism, speech and language needs to enhance teachers’ knowledge and skills (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2015).

In addition, it is essential to ensure that every distance education opportunity has been designed to be accessible for all, taking into account the principles of universal design (UNESCO, 2016).

Other policy options

Give teachers licenses and scholarships to further specialize

To fill teacher’s knowledge gaps and help them develop specialist expertise, teacher education programs should include post-diploma specialisations, Master’s Degrees, and Ph.D.’s in inclusive education. For instance, a programme implemented for teacher education reform and inclusive education in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Serbia, and Montenegro, with the support of Finland, allowed multiple teachers to get post-diploma specialisation and Master’s Degrees in inclusive education (Finland, n.d.).

As illustrated in the general section of the present Policy page, it is important to provide scholarships and monetary incentives to motivate qualified teachers to return to school to complete post-diploma specialisation, Master’s Degrees, and or Ph.D.’s. For example, in Thailand, 30 teachers were provided scholarships to complete a Master in inclusive education (UNESCO, 2009d).

Policies for displaced populations and host communities

Contents under review

Policies for minority populations

Contents under review

Policies for OVCs and HIV affected populations

Promising policy options

Training on HIV/AIDS issues and life skills

Pre-service and in-service training can be provided on HIV/AIDS and on relevant life skills, including knowledge about the virus, prevention, care, and treatment. Training programs should recognize that before being able to address student’s knowledge and beliefs surrounding HIV/AIDS, teachers will need to address their own attitudes, which may include stigma and bias. It has been observed that while HIV related training programs can be effective in transmitting knowledge to teachers, it does not always lead to the actual implementation of the content in classrooms (Wood & Goba, 2011). More effective approaches involve teachers in the design of the training, utilizing their knowledge of the specific context and cultural and social norms. It is also important that there is a whole-school approach, and individual teachers are not singled out to be the sole experts. There should also be support systems on these issues.

A number of policies can be implemented on this topic. For instance, it is essential to ensure a comprehensive pre-service and in-service training which:

• Helps teachers know how to address stigma and myths surrounding HIV/AIDS, as well as how to promote compassionate, non-judgemental beliefs and attitudes.
• Addresses teacher’s own attitudes and experiences surrounding HIV and its own vulnerabilities.
• Provides deep knowledge on HIV/AIDS care, treatment, and prevention and how to discuss these issues with students.
• Provides knowledge of the etiology of HIV (Coombe (2002) recommended that every teacher be provided with a low-cost, illustrated book in accessible language).
• Provides knowledge on life skills, including decision making, self-esteem, peer pressure, communication skills, caring for the sick, sexual reproductive health. Including national training guidelines and materials on those topics.
• Encourages the implementation of interactive and engaging pedagogy.
• Helps teachers learn to identifying OVCs and children in need.
• Encourages the home-school liaison.
• Ensures supportive supervision, such as observation by other teachers and suggestions on how to improve.
• Are based on the real needs of the teachers and their specific context.
• Ensure that every teacher is trained, including principals and school leaders.

Materials and resources are also of key importance and should be designed with multiple stakeholders, including parents, teachers, and community leaders. Resources must consider the values of the community, and how sensitive topics such as sex and reproductive health issues can best be addressed. For in-service training, facilitators can involve teachers in developing a specific plan for their school. Moreover, the trainers of teachers should be part of the school system, to understand how the material can actually be implemented. It is also essential to ensure that life skills and HIV topics are embedded within the curriculum. An enabling environment and whole-school approach should receive support from administrators, school governing bodies, principals, communities, and parents. Regular dialogue between all actors should be ensured. Fostering collaboration between teachers is key. Moreover, strive for support from outside organizations and motivate faculty to promote an accepting, tolerant school environment; find opportunities for additional training; and provide leadership to comprehensively address the issues.

Training on counselling and psychosocial support

OVCs often experience emotional and psychological distress, discrimination, as well as increased home responsibilities, which can negatively affect their school performance and attendance. Schools and educators are in a unique position to support students through these issues as teachers are often the adults that children spend the most time with on a daily basis, and children are already connected to school services. However, care should be taken to not overburden teachers with these extra roles and responsibilities, as many teachers are already overworked and under-valued. It is also important to recognize that teachers are impacted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic and are dealing with these issues themselves. Teachers should, therefore, be fairly recognized and compensated for extra social support roles. Schools should provide designated social workers or counsellors to provide further support to children, as well as referrals to external services and organisations.

Teachers should receive training on:

• basic counselling and listening skills;
• supporting grief;
• recognizing signs of emotional issues, sensitivity, trauma, and abuse;
• awareness of and referral to external sources of support;
• the psychological and emotional impacts of HIV/AIDS; and
• how to show children kindness and support.

The training program should fit into local and cultural context (determining whether or not teachers are the most appropriate resource, in consideration of the possible hierarchical relation between students and teachers).

It is important to grant recognition of and compensation for teachers taking on extra roles, with these tasks being included in job descriptions and timetables and being a condition for promotions and salary increases. Likewise, it is important to monitor and follow-up on training on counselling and support, considering that these skills take time to develop.

Schools should provide designated counsellors or social workers to more extensively support children through psychosocial issues, as well as collaboration with external organisations and services. Furthermore, schools can appoint specific teachers for counselling and mentoring roles (if provided additional compensation).

Foster an enabling environment and whole-school approach in caring for OVCs:

• Ensure the support from administrators, school governing bodies, principals, communities and parents. Guarantee regular dialogue between all actors;
• Boost the collaboration between teachers;
• Gain support from outside organizations;
• Ensure that head teachers motivate faculty to promote an accepting, tolerant school environment; find opportunities for additional training; provide leadership to comprehensively address the issues.

Enabling environment for implementing HIV/life skills teacher training

Various recommendations should be considered in order to ensure an enabling environment:

• Mainstream pre-service training on HIV issues into education and workplace policies.
• Promote an inclusive teaching and learning environment in teacher training institutions, as well as non-discrimination, tolerance and providing care and support to HIV affected teaching students.
• Offer experiential learning opportunities for student teachers in HIV affected communities.
• Provide HIV/AIDS-related content. Embed it within the teacher training curriculum and include it as a mandatory course (that is tested).
• Ensure continuous professional development and certification opportunities. Include refresher training, with supportive supervision. This can also be provided through distance learning, such as through using training manuals, radio, and ICT.
• Make sure there are in place quality assurance mechanisms to monitor the implementation of HIV/life skills curriculum in teacher training institutions, including pre- and post-tests on teaching strategies, planning tools, activities, curriculum delivery, and lesson observation.

Policies for pastoralists and nomadic populations

Promising policy options

Hire local teachers from pastoralist/nomadic communities and provide high-quality training

Ideally, local pastoralist/nomadic teachers would be hired to teach within their own communities, as they will have the required knowledge of the local language, lifestyle, and context that allows them to serve the pastoralist/nomadic population. This is particularly relevant for mobile school models, as teachers would much more easily be able to move with their students. However, there is often not a large supply of a skilled workforce to recruit from. In these cases, pre-service and in-service training can be provided to locally recruited community members, but training must be of sufficient relevance and quality. Communities can nominate the most qualified community members for these positions. Pastoralist/nomadic teachers should be given the same status and opportunities as other teachers, with equivalent pay and sufficient training and professional development opportunities.

Pastoralist/nomadic communities nominate candidates for teacher training (including nominating young community members for pre-service training), with high-quality pre-service and in-service training to competent locally recruited community members.

Equivalent pay, training, and professional development opportunities as other national teachers are offered, and there are collaboration and partnership between communities, schools, government, and development partners to recruit and train nomadic teachers.

Specific training on pastoralist/nomadic context, culture and curriculum

Teachers working in pastoralist areas need to be specifically trained on the pastoralist context. Thus, pre-service and/or in-service teacher training should have an understanding of and respect for pastoralist/nomadic way of life, include pastoralist/nomadic-relevant curriculum, and how to adapt curriculum contents to a specific community context.

Collaboration and partnership between teachers, schools, pastoralist/nomadic families and communities, and government is key to develop relevant training. If qualified teachers who speak the local language are not available, consider hiring teacher aides/assistants who speak the language.

Provide incentives for teachers working in pastoralist/nomadic areas

Considering the difficult circumstances and extra demands placed on teachers working in nomadic areas, they will likely require extra incentives. It should also be ensured that teachers in these areas, including those working in alternative schooling models, are provided adequate remuneration, professional development opportunities, and full teaching status.

Provide incentives for qualified teachers to teach in pastoralist/nomadic areas, or programs, such as hardship allowance, scholarships, special salary provision, transportation, professional development and training opportunities, promotion opportunities, social welfare services, accommodation, better salary scale, while making sure to involve teachers in the design of incentive packages.

Open and distance learning for teacher training

The use of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) for teacher training is particularly relevant for pastoralist/nomadic areas. The Pivotal Teachers Training Programme (PTTP) in Nigeria is an example of such an initiative. The program uses a combination of radio, face-to-face content, and print resources, with adapted locally relevant curriculum and teaching practice in nomadic schools. ODL teacher training programs should consider aspects such as: entry requirements (balancing the need for supply adequate with sufficient qualifications); incentives to attract candidates; locally relevant adapted curriculum; the most appropriate technologies available in the communities; and the need for long-term funding.

Specific training for alternative school models

Teacher training will have to be specifically tailored for the particular school models. This can include:

• alternative pedagogies and classroom management for multi-grade teaching;
• adapted planning and preparation skills for multi-grade teaching;
• in the case of ODL, how to operate and care for ODL equipment;
• experiential learning pedagogy;
• adapting the curriculum to fit the cultural context and make it locally relevant; and
• regular refresher trainings.